Псковский Вольный институт
для студентов-заочников
Псков
2005
Сборник подготовлен сотрудниками кафедры английского
языка Псковского Вольного института: к.пед.н. Л. О. Ивановой,
Л. С. Крашенинниковой, Е. В. Максимовой,
О. В. Никандровой, Е. Н. Симоненко,
М. В. Ткаченко, О. В. Шорой, О. Г. Элланской.
Редактор: зав.каф.англ.языка Л.С.Крашенинникова
Humanistic Movement in Psychology
A Lifetime of Learning to Manage Effectively
Материал предлагаемого сборника подобран с учетом требований программы по английскому языку для студентов-заочников высших учебных заведений, которая, в основном, предусматривает самостоятельные занятия студентов. Он предназначен для студентов 2 курса, овладевших базовыми знаниями по грамматике и лексике английского языка, а также основными понятиями дисциплин своей специализации, и представляет собой сборник текстов по профилирующим специальностям студентов: психологии, социологии, информатике, экономике и праву. Тексты снабжены списком слов, которые должны войти в активный вокабуляр студентов, а также упражнений, рассчитанных на умение правильно употребить предлагаемую лексику, и упражнений на проверку понимания предложенных текстов.
Три задачи стояли перед авторами сборника:
– помочь студентам выработать навыки адекватного перевода аутентичных текстов по своей специальности;
– пополнить их словарный запас лексикой, отражающей базовые понятия по дисциплинам специализации;
– научить студентов оперировать этими понятиями в устной и письменной речи.
Работа с текстами и упражнениями проводится студентами самостоятельно. Проверка правильности выполнения задания может быть осуществлена либо на консультационных аудиторных занятиях, либо задания предоставляются в виде контрольной работы. В обязательном порядке основная лексика прорабатывается на аудиторных занятиях под руководством преподавателя.
Проверенная контрольная работа должна быть
исправлена студентом согласно указаниям рецензента, а недостаточно усвоенные
темы дополнительно проработаны перед устным зачетом или экзаменом.
Humanistic Movement in Psychology
Some 60 years ago, a new perspective on human
motivation and personality – the HUMANISTIC APPROACH – began to gain
popularity. According to it healthy humans want to feel free to choose and
determine their own lives, to become SELF-ACTUALIZED. According to Abraham
Maslow (1908-1970), the humanistic movement represents a kind of "third
force in psychology" – the other two being behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
A major contrast between humanistic psychologists and
the behaviorists and psychoanalysts is in their contrasting conception of human
MOTIVATION. According to Maslow, behaviorists and psychoanalysts see human
beings as engaged in a never-ending struggle to remove some internal tensions.
Seen in this light, people always want to get away from something rather than
to gain something positive.
Maslov proposed a HIERARCHY OF NEEDS in which the
lower-order physiological needs are at the bottom, safety needs are further up,
the need for attachment and love is still higher, and the desire for esteem is
yet higher. At the very top of the hierarchy is the striving for
self-actualization - the desire to realize oneself to the fullest.
Maslow believed that people will
only strive for higher-order needs when lower-order needs are satisfied. But as
Maslow pointed out, there are exceptions. (Some artist will starve rather than
give up their poetry or their painting and some martyrs proclaim their faith
regardless of pain and suffering.) But the drive toward self-actualization will
become a primary concern only when all other needs beneath are satisfied. But
what does self-actualization mean?
Maslow gave some examples by presenting case histories
of a number of people that he and his colleagues regarded as
"self-actualized". As he saw it, these people had many admirable
characteristics: they are realistically oriented, accepted themselves and
others, were spontaneous, cared more about the problems they were working on
then about themselves, had intimate relationships with a few people rather than
superficial relationships with many, and democratic values. Besides,
self-actualized persons are more likely than other people have what Maslow
called PEAK EXPERIENCES (profound and deep "feeling of great ecstasy when
something extremely important and valuable had happened").
|
approach feature behaviorism to engage to remove
internal tensions hierarchy safety needs attachment esteem striving higher-order
needs drive admirable characteristics superficial relationships value peak experience primary
concern |
подход черта бихевиоризм вовлекать снять внутреннее напряжение иерархия потребность в безопасности привязанность самооценка стремление потребности высшего порядка стремление положительные черты поверхностные отношения ценность верхняя точка пирамиды потребностей первичная забота |
1.
Give
the basic idea of humanistic approach in one sentence.
2.
What
is the main idea of behaviorism and psychoanalysis criticized by Maslow?
3.
What
is the Main concept proposed by Maslow? Describe it in more details.
4.
What
are lower-order and higher-order psychological needs?
5.
Give
characteristics of a self-actualized person according to the theory of
humanistic approach?
6.
Give a
definition of a peak experience.
1.
The
main idea of humanistic approach is based on never-ending struggle to remove
internal tension.
2.
In the
hierarchy of needs suggested by Maslow physiological needs are followed by
safety needs and needs for attachment and love.
3.
Striving
for self-actualization occupies the bottom part of Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
4.
According
to Maslow a self-actualized person has fewer chances to live through
peak-experience.
5.
Maslow
believed, that people will only strive for lower-order needs only when higher-order needs are satisfied.
6. According to Abraham Maslow, the humanistic movement
represents a kind of "third force in psychology" - the other two
being behaviorism and psychoanalysis.
|
2.
admirable 3.
spontaneous 4. bottom 5. force 6. need 7.
primary 8.
self-esteem |
(a)
positive, liked (b) wish (c) power (e)
self-respect (f)
on-the-spot (g) first (h) lower
part |
1. The main difference of humanistic approach and behaviorism is in
contrasting conception of
a. hierarchy of needs
b. motivation
c. self-actualization
2. The main concept of humanistic theory is that
а. human beings are engaged in a never-ending struggle
to remove some internal tensions
b. people always want to get away from something rather than to gain
something positive.
c. healthy humans want to feel free to choose and determine their own
lives
3.
The succession of needs given in
Maslow's hierarchy is…
а.
physiological needs, safety needs, love, esteem
b.
love, physiological needs, safety needs, esteem
c.
esteem, physiological needs, safety needs, love
4.
"feeling of great ecstasy when
something extremely important and valuable had happened" is a
characteristic of …
a. motivation
b. love and attachment needs
c. peak experience
5. According to Maslow, self-actualized person has the following characteristic:
a.
has superficial relationships with
many people
b. cares about himself more than about the problems he is
working on
c. is
realistically oriented
Personality theorists have long searched for a way to
classify human personality by reference to a few FUNDAMENTAL TRAITS. But which
traits are basic and what are the categories along which people should be
grouped together?
At this point, a major task is the development of a
useful classification system. Raymond Cattell (1957) identified some 16 primary
DIMENSIONS of personality. Each of the dimensions was defined by a pair of
adjectives 'hat describe the opposite poles of the dimension, such as
outgoing-reserved, suspicious-trusting, tense-relaxed, happy-sober, etc. Other
investigators reduced the number of primary dimensions to a smaller set. Widely
quoted Warren Norman featured 5 major dimensions, often called the "Big
Five": extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness
and cultural sensitivity.
The most influential alternative proposed by Hans
Eysenck is based on 2 main dimensions: neuroticism / emotional
stability and extroversion / introversion (direction of a person's
energies toward the outer world or toward the inner world of one's own thoughts
and feelings).
The concept of stable personality traits has been seriously
challenged by critics who argue that people behave much less consistently than
a trait theory would predict. One alternative is SITUATIONISM, which claims
that human behavior is largely determined by the situation in which the
individual finds himself. In other words, there is no consistent expression of
a trait across different situations.
Recently psychologists have come to realize that
CONSISTENCY itself (the degree to which people do much the same thing in
different situations ) can be regarded as a trait in its own right and varies
from person to person. Some people tend to be more consistent than others, they
adjust their behavior to fit social situation more than do others.
While some trait theorists view traits as merely
descriptive categories, others see them as predispositions to behave in certain
ways that are rooted in the biological makeup of the individual. A number of
modern investigators believe that personality traits grow out of the
individual's TEMPERAMENT, a characteristic reaction pattern that is present
from a rather early age. Such temperamental patterns are largely genetic and
constitutional in origin. Studies of infants' temperaments and twin studies
support the view that some personality traits are hereditary, or have a genetic
basis.
|
approach by reference traits primary dimension outgoing suspicious investigator major dimensions agreeableness conscientiousness outer inner to be challenged to be determined expression consistency to be regarded to adjust behavior predisposition biological makeup to have a genetic basis origin infant hereditary |
подход ссылаясь, опираясь черты основное измерение общительный склонный подозревать исследователь основное измерение сговорчивость добросовестность внешний внутренний оспариваться определяться выражение постоянство, последовательность считаться приспосабливаться предрасположенность, склонность биологическое строение, натура иметь генетическую основу происхождение ребёнок наследственный |
1.
What
is the basic concept of Trait theory?
2.
Give
an example of personality dimension. Speak about different approaches of
psychologists concerning the number of major personality dimensions.
3.
Describe the
idea of Situationism in one sentence.
4.
What can you
say about a person with a high degree of consistensy?
5.
What
psychologist introduced the idea of introversion/extroversion? Describe
introvert and extrovert.
6.
What
is temperament? Is it a learned or genetically coded category?
1.
Widely quoted psychologist Raymond
Cattell featured 5 major dimensions, often called the "Big Five":
extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
cultural sensitivity.
2.
SITUATIONISM claims that human
behavior is never determined by the situation in which the individual finds
himself.
3.
Recently psychologists have come to
realize that CONSISTENCY can be regarded as a trait in its own right and varies
from person to person.
|
1.
Hereditary 2.
Primary 4.
Suspicious 5. To
challenge 6. To
regard 7. To
adjust 8. To
investigate |
(a) major (b) to
criticize (c) to
study (d) to
fit (e)
having a genetic basis (f)
consider (g)
untrusting (h) communicative |
1.
What
is the theory of “Big Five” connected with?
a.
human
temperament
b.
consistency
c.
personality
dimensions
2.
The concept of stable personality traits has been seriously challenged
by critics who argue that…
a.
people behave much less consistently than a trait theory would predict
b.
there are 16 primary DIMENSIONS of personality
c.
temperamental patterns are largely genetic and constitutional in origin.
3. A person behaves much the same way in different situations,
he has high level of
a.
consistency
b.
dimension
c.
temperament
4. The number of major personality
dimensions is
a.
5
b.
16
c.
variable
4.
TEMPERAMENT is
a.
direction of a person's energies
toward the outer world or toward the inner world of one's own thoughts and
feelings
b.
a characteristic reaction pattern that is present from a rather early
age
c.
the opposite poles of the dimension
There exist two major approaches to the problem of
describing and assessing different personalities.
One approach to personality assessment is by
STRUCTURED OBJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTS, such as the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory, or MMPI. The MMPI assesses the degree of correspondence
between a person's responses and those of a criterion group made up of
psychiatric patients (paranoids, depressives, schizophrenics, etc). Traits are
assessed by means of a number of different scales.
To interpret an MMPI record, clinicians consider the
various scale values in reaction to each other. This is most easily done by
inspecting SCORE PROFILES, which present the scores on every scale in graphic
form.
One trouble with such personality inventories is that
patients can easily misrepresent themselves. To cope with this, the originators
of the MMPI added some scales, such as a simple LYING SCALE. It contains items
like "I gossip a little at times", or "Once in a while I laugh
at a dirty joke". A person who denies a large number of such statements is
either a saint or is lying.
To evaluate the success of such tests, we must look at their VALIDITY.
The usual way to do it is to determine the degree to
which a test can predict some real-world events.( PREDICTIVE VALIDITY ). The
results show that while these tests predict, they don't predict very well, for
their validity coefficients are relatively low.
A very different way of assessing personality is by
means of PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUES. Two prominent examples are the Rorschach
inkblot and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Unlike objective tests, these
tests are said to show personality attribute of which the subject himself may
be unaware.
Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychologist used 10
symmetrical inkblots, some coloured and some black-and-white, and presented
them to various groups of psychiatric patients. When the patients were asked
what they saw in the inkblots, their responses seemed to differ depending upon
the diagnostic group to which they belonged. Interpretation of records is an
art that requires much talent and experience.
The TAT test materials are a number of pictures of
various scenes. The subject is asked to tell a story about each picture, to
describe what is happening, what led up to the scene, and what the outcome will
be. The desired end product is a picture of the person's major motives and
conflicts, the difference between achievements and aspiration of people.
While these tests are often used in clinical practice,
they have been criticized because of their relatively low validity.
|
major approach to assess personality inventory correspondence criterion group trait scale score profile to misrepresent to deny to evaluate validity to determine to predict inkblot apperception to be unaware of… subject outcome |
основной подход оценить, исследовать личность тест соответствие целевая группа черта шкала графический профиль неверно себя представить отвергнуть оценить валидность определить предсказывать чернильное пятно апперцепция, самосознание не осознавать испытуемый результат |
1.
What
are two major approaches to personality assessment?
2.
Give
an example of Structured Objective Personality test described in the text.
3.
What
scale is usually added to structured tests to prevent people from
misrepresenting themselves?
4.
What
is the main difference of projective tests? Describe TAT and Rorschach inkblot
test.
5.
What
can you say about predictive validity of both types of personality tests?
1.
Psychologists
use score profiles to interpret projective tests.
2.
Predictive
validity is the degree to which a test can predict events which happen in real
life.
3.
To
assess personalities using MMPI psychologists compare person' responses to
responses given by psychiatric patients.
4.
Using
projective techniques can help to reveal personality traits of which the
subject is not aware.
5.
A TAT
test consists of demonstrating a set of symmetrical inkblots and their
interpretation.
6.
There
are three types of personality tests used in clinical practice.
|
1. a test 2. to
assess 3. to
predict 4. an
outcome 5. a
response 6. a
trait 8. a
subject |
(a) to
see the future (b)a characteristic (c) to
know (d) a
testee (e) to
evaluate (f)
inventory (g) a
result (h) an
answer |
1.
The
main criterion of test evaluation is its
a.
assessment
c.
inventory
a.
possible
misrepresentation of subjects
b.
revealing
of traits of which subjects are unaware
c.
high
predictive validity
3.
Interpretation
of the TAT test is based on
a.
using
symmetrical inkblots
b.
using
lying scale
c.
analyzing
a story about the picture.
4.
Which
of the tests are used in working with psychiatric patients?
a.
objective
tests
b.
projective
tests
c.
both
types of tests
5.
The
representation of test's outcome in graphic form is called
a.
score
profile
b.
projective
technique
c.
TAT.
Friendship is both a source of pleasure and a component of good health. People who have close friends naturally enjoy their company. Of equal importance are the concrete emotional benefits they derive. When something sensational happens to us, sharing the happiness of the occasion with friends intensifies our joy, Conversely, in times of trouble and tension, when our spirits are low, unburdening our worries and fears to compassionate friends alleviate the stress. Moreover, we may even get some practical suggestions for solving a particular problem.
From time to time, we are
insensitive and behave in a way that hurts someone’s feelings. This positive
interaction is therapeutic, and much less expensive than visit to a
psychologist.
Adolescence and old age are the two
stages in our lives when the need for friendship is crucial. In the former
stage, teens are upset by feelings of uselessness and insignificance. In both
instances, friends can make a dramatic difference. With close friends in their
lives, people develop courage and positive attitudes. Teenagers have the moral
support to assert their individuality, the elderly approach their advanced
years with optimism and an interest in life.
These positive outlooks are vital to
cope successfully with a crisis inherent in these two stages of life.
Throughout life, we rely on small groups of people for love, admiration, respect, moral support, and help. Almost everyone has a “network” of friends: co-workers, neighbors and schoolmates. While both men and women have such friends, evidence accumulating that indicates men really make close friends. Men are sociable and frequently have numerous business acquaintances, golf bodies and so on. However, friendship does not merely involve a sharing of activities; it is a sharing of self on a very personal level. Customarily men have shied away from close relationships in which they confide in others. By bottling up their emotions, men deprive themselves of a healthy outlet for their negative feelings.
The picture is different among
middle-class, middle-aged women. They tend to be more emotionally stable in
times of personal turmoil because they vent feelings and concerns. They receive
support and sympathy from close friends. In fact, being adapt in forming close
friendships is the most valuable asset for widows. Having a few good friends
makes the transition from living with a husband to living alone less lonely and
frightening. Conversely, widowers whose sole confidence were their wives, have
greater difficulty adjusting, feel abandoned, and deteriorate physically more
rapidly.
Because friendships enhance our
lives, it is important to cultivate them. Unfortunately, it is somewhat
difficult to make long-lasting close friends. People are mobile, and mobility
puts a strain on friendships. Long distances between friends discourage
intimacy. Long distance telephone conversations are costly, and letter writing
is not a deeply ingrained habit. Divorce is also destructive to friendships. In
many cases, when divorce occurs, friendships disintegrate because couples
usually prefer to associate with other couples.
People choose some friends because
they are fun to be with, they “make things happen”. Likewise, common interests
appear to be a significant factor in selecting friends. Families with children,
for instance, tend to gravitate toward families with children. It is normal to
befriend people who have similar lifestyles, and organizations such as PARENTS
WITHOUT PARTNERS have appeared on the scene as a natural outgrowth of this
tendency. These groups provide an opportunity to socialize, make new
acquaintances and friends, obtain helpful advice in adapting smoothly to a new
lifestyle. Other groups focus on a specific interests such as camping or
politics. It is perfectly acceptable to select friends for special qualities.
As long as there is a balanced giving and taking that is mutually satisfying.
Very close and trusted friends share
confidences candidly. They feel secure that they will not be ridiculed or
derided, and their confidences will be honored. Betraying a trust is a very
quick and painful way to terminate a friendship.
As friendships solidify, ties
strengthen. Intimate relationships enrich people’s lives. Some components of a
thriving friendship are honesty, naturalness, thoughtfulness, some common
interests.
Circumstances and people are
constantly changing. Some friendships last “forever”; others do not.
Nevertheless, friendship is an essential ingredient in the making of a
healthful, rewarding life.
|
Adept |
Enhance |
Intensify |
Compassionate |
|
Disintegrate |
Inherent |
Mutual |
Plague |
|
Therapeutic |
Unburden |
Turmoil |
Vent |
1.
_____________________________:
strengthen; deepen.
2.
_____________________________:
increase; heighten.
3.
_____________________________:
expert.
4.
_____________________________:
belonging by nature; intrinsic.
5.
_____________________________:
sympathetic.
6.
_____________________________:
break apart; deteriorate.
7.
_____________________________:
relieve or release by expressing.
8.
_____________________________:
shared in common.
9.
_____________________________:
to give vigorous or emotional expression to.
10.
_____________________________:
remedial; something that cures.
11.
_____________________________:
trouble; bother.
12.
_____________________________:
an extremely confused or upset condition.
___ T ___ F 1.
When a person feels depressed, a friend can be of help.
___ T ___ F 2.
Adolescents as well as elderly people have a compelling need for friends.
___ T ___ F 3.
Men make close friends as readily as women.
___ T ___ F 4.
Friendship always means sharing activities.
___ T ___ F 5.
Because our society is mobile, we pick up more close friends.
1.
The
main idea of the article is:
a.
A good
friend always helps another friend in times of trouble.
b.
Friends
are essential in our lives because of the emotional benefits they provide.
c.
We all
have friends at every stage in our lives.
d.
A good
friend will always lend you money when you need it.
2.
How
can friends help us in times of trouble?
3.
Why is
the support of good friends so essential to adolescents?
4.
Why is
the support of good friends so essential to older people?
5.
What
do we mean by a network of friends?
6.
Why do
many women tend to be more emotionally stable in times of personal crisis?
7.
Why is
it difficult to maintain close friends over the years?
8.
Regardless
of the reasons we choose friends, what quality must exist in each relationship?
Shyness is the cause of much
unhappiness for a great many people. All kinds of people describe themselves as
shy: short, tall, dull, intelligent, young, old, slim, overweight. Shy people
are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are excessively concerned with
their own appearance and actions. Worrisome thoughts are constantly swirling in
their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound
stupid? I’m ugly. I’m wearing unattractive clothes.
It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people adversely. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way a person behaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way people think about themselves has a profound effect on all areas of their lives. For instance, people who have a positive sense of self-worth or high self-esteem usually act with confidence. Because they have self-assurance, they do not need constant praise and encouragement from others to feel good about themselves. Self-confident people are their own best friends. They participate in life enthusiastically and spontaneously. They are not affected by what others think they “should” do. People with high self-esteem are not hurt by criticism; they do not regard criticism as personal rejection. Instead, they view criticism as suggestion for improvement.
In contrast, shy people, having low self-esteem, are likely to be passive and easily influenced by others. They need reassurance that they are doing “the right thing”. Shy people are very sensitive to criticism; they feel it confirms their inferiority. They also find it difficult to be pleased by compliments because they believe they are unworthy of praise. A shy person may respond to a compliment with a statement like this one: “You’re just saying that to make me feel good. I know it’s not true”. It is clear that, while self-awareness is a healthy quality, overdoing it is detrimental, or harmful.
Can shyness be completely eliminated, or at
least reduced? Fortunately, people can overcome shyness with determined and
patient effort in building self-confidence. Since shyness goes hand in hand
with lack of self-esteem, it is important for people to accept their weaknesses
as well as their strengths. For example, most people would like to be “A”
students in every subject. It is not fair for them to label themselves inferior
because they have difficulty in some areas. People’s expectations of themselves
must be realistic. Dwelling on the impossible leads to a sense of inadequacy,
and even feelings of envy, or jealousy. We are self-destructive when we envy a
student who gets better grades.
If you are shy, here are some
helpful steps toward building self-confidence and overcoming shyness:
1.
Recognize
your personal strengths and weaknesses. Everyone has both. As self-acceptance
grows, shyness naturally diminishes
2.
Set
reasonable goals. For example, you may be timid about being with a group of
strangers at a party. Don'’ feel that you must converse with everyone.
Concentrate on talking to only one or two people. You will feel more
comfortable.
3.
Guilt
and shame are destructive feelings. Don’t waste time and energy on them.
Suppose you have hurt someone’s feelings. Feeling ashamed accomplishes nothing.
Instead, accept the fact that you have made a mistake, and make up your mind to
be more sensitive in the future.
4.
There
are numerous approaches to all issues. Few opinions are completely right or
wrong. Don’t be afraid to speak up and give your point of view.
5.
Do not
make negative comments about yourself as stupid, ugly, worthless, a failure.
Accept the positive.
6.
Accept
criticism thoughtfully. Do not interpret it as a personal attack. If, for
example, a friend complains about your cooking, accept it as a comment on your
cooking, not yourself. Be assured that you are the same good friend; perhaps
your cooking could improve.
7.
Remember
that everyone experiences some failures and disappointments. Profit from them
as learning experiences. Very often a disappointment becomes a turning point
for a wonderful experience to come along. For instance, you may be rejected by
the college of your choice. However, at the college you actually attend, you
may find a quality of education beyond what you had expected.
8.
Do not
associate with people who make you feel inadequate. Try to change their
attitude or yours, or remove yourself from that relationship. People who hurt
you do not have your best interests at heart.
9.
Set
aside time to relax, and reevaluate your goals on a regular basis. Time spent
this way helps you learn more about yourself.
10.
Practice
being in social situations. Don’t isolate yourself from people. Try making one
acquaintance at a time; eventually you will circulate in large groups with
skill and self-assurance.
11.
Each
one of us is a unique worthwhile individual. We are interesting in our own
personal ways. The better we understand ourselves, the easier it becomes to
live up to our full potential. Let’s not allow shyness to block our chances for
a rich and fulfilling life.
|
Anxious |
Overcome |
Reassurance |
Shame |
|
Dwell on |
Potential |
Goal |
Spontaneous |
|
Enthusiastically |
Profound |
Praise |
Worthless |
1.
______________________:
possibility; capacity
2.
______________________:
get the better of; conquer
3.
______________________:
deep; not superficial
4.
______________________:
freedom from anxiety and fear
5.
______________________:
worried; apprehensive
6.
______________________:
think about at length; linger over
7.
______________________:
with feelings of excitement
8.
______________________:
commendation; speaking well of
9.
______________________:
without value
10.
______________________:
aim; purpose
11.
______________________:
impulsive; unpremeditated; not planned
12.
______________________:
a painful feeling caused by guilt or improper behavior
_____T_______F
1. All people who worry are shy.
_____T_______F
2. If we think well of ourselves, we will act with confidence.
_____T_______F
3. People who are shy can’t change.
_____T_______F
4. Shy people have trouble accepting compliments
_____T_______F
5. We hurt ourselves when we have bad feelings toward a more intelligent
student.
_____T_______F
6. Self-acceptance is an important step in overcoming shyness.
1.
The
main idea of the article is:
a.
Shyness
affects many people in our society.
b.
We can
overcome shyness by talking to strangers.
c.
Shyness
is caused by an unhappy childhood.
d.
Shyness
causes unhappiness, but it can be overcome.
2.
Why
are shy people unhappy?
3.
How do
people with high self-esteem act? How do people with low self-esteem act?
4.
How
can people overcome shyness?
5.
Is
there a relationship, or connection, between self-acceptance and shyness?
6.
Why is
it so important to overcome shyness?
The ability to write well is a necessity for work in
public relations. Writing is an integral part of the public relations process
of research, planning, communication, and evaluation. It is most visible at the
third stage, when a program is being implemented and various messages are being
communicated to key audiences important to the sue cess of your program.
Effective writing is based on facts that are presented
clearly, concisely, and accurately. From this standpoint, both the public
relations writer and the journalist share a common ground. Indeed, there was a
time when experience in newspaper writing was practically a requirement for a
job in public relations.
Although this is no longer true, emphasis remains on use of a journalistic style in public relations writing. This is because much of what you write is directed to the news media. A solid understanding of journalistic principles and concepts is needed, but it is a mistake for public relations writers to consider themselves simply "journalists in residence".
A public relations writer differs from a journalist in
at least three basic aspects: objectives, audiences, and channels.
|
public relations to communicate communication evaluation standpoint public relations writer journalistic style |
паблик рилейшнз, связи с общественностью сообщать, передавать (новости, мнение); передавать сообщение; обмениваться информацией связь, система связи; передача, система передачи; обмен
информацией оценка, анализ точка зрения автор, пишущий в области паблик рилейшнз публицистический стиль |
A journalist is usually employed by a news
organization to gather, process, and synthesize information for the primary
puipose of providing news to the organization's subscribers, viewers, or
listeners. A hallmark of professional reporting is to present information in an
objective manner. A reporter's personal preference may affect the choice of
words and the news angle of the story, but in general, the reporter tries to
maintain an attitude of strict neutrality.
The public relations writer, in contrast, is usually
employed by an organization that wants to communicate with a variety of
audiences, either through the news media or through other channels of
communication. This may include corporations, government agencies,
environmental groups, labor unions, trade associations, or public relations
firms who provide information on behalf of clients.
The writer's purpose is not objectivity but advocacy.
The goal is not only to inform but also to persuade and motivate.
Hence all public relations writing should begin with
the question. How does this help the organization attain its objectives? For
example, does a product news release point out the advantages of the company's
new product and how can it benefit a potential customer? The editor of a
company employee newsletter must also consider company objectives when planning
various articles. If the company wants to increase employee productivity, the
editor may decide to run several features about employees who are outstanding
workers.
|
objective to attain objectives audience channel information to gather information to process information to synthesize information to present information to provide news subscriber viewer listener news media customer to run several features |
цель; объективный, непредвзятый достичь цели аудитория (радиослушателей, телезрителей) канал; телевизионная сеть; сеть телевизионного вещания,
телесеть информация, сообщения; знания, осведомленность собирать информацию обрабатывать информацию синтезировать информацию подавать информацию предоставлять информацию подписчик зритель слушатель средства массовой информации; средства распространения
последних новостей клиент, заказчик провести несколько передач; дать несколько занимательных
статей |
The journalist writes for one audience – readers,
listeners, or viewers of the medium for which he or she works. Newspapers,
magazines, radio, and television are usually defined as "mass media"
because the audience is numerous and unknown to the communicator, and its
members have little in common. A suburban daily newspaper, for example,
circulates primarily among people who share a common residential area but have
a broad range of backgrounds and interests. Such mass media, by definition,
usually present material written at the fourth- to sixth-grade level and offer
a wide variety of stories and features to satisfy almost any interest, be it
sports, local news, or the daily horoscope.
In contrast, the readers of a special interest
magazine share a very strong interest in only one subject – a particular hobby,
a specific industry, or a highly specialized occupation. Reporters for such
magazines write about just one subject for a limited and intensely interested
audience.
The public relations writer, however, may write for
numerous and radically different audiences – employees, constituents,
customers, business people, homemakers, travelers, bankers, stockholders,
fanners, and many others. Effective public relations writing is based on
carefully defining the audience and its composition so that you can tailor your
information to its interests and concerns. A public relations writer does
research constantly to determine these audience needs, concerns, and interests.
Aimed with this information, you can write a more persuasive message.
|
mass media to circulate to tailor information |
средства массовой информации (пресса, печать, радио,
телевидение, кинематограф, средства видео- и звукозаписи и воспроизведения) распространять (тираж газет, журналов); распространяться подгонять, приспосабливать информацию |
Journalists, by nature of their employment, reach
their audiences through one channel, the medium that publishes or broadcasts
their work.
The public relations writer, with many specific
audiences to reach, will probably use many channels. Indeed, public relations
writers must not only determine the message but also select the most effective
channel of communication. In many cases, the channel may not be any of the
traditional mass media – newspapers, magazines, radio, and television. The most
effective channel for the tailored message may be direct mail, a pamphlet, an
organizational newsletter, a videotape, a poster, or a special event. Any
combination of channels may be selected to achieve message penetration and
maximum understanding.
|
medium to broadcast message |
средство коммуникации передавать по телевидению; передавать по радио сообщение, информация; идея, мысли, взгляды |
synthesize, neutrality,
variety, environmental, employee, persuasive, pamphlet, horoscope.
неотъемлемая
часть, основываться на ч.-л., требование к ч.-л., отличаться от к.-л., от имени
к.-л., достичь цели, иметь мало общего с ч.-л., удовлетворить любые интересы,
максимальное понимание, в первую очередь
to present facts, journalistic principles and concepts, to provide news,
to benefit a customer, to process information, by definition, the audience and
its composition, highly specialized occupation, a limited audience, a special
event, to increase productivity
1)
the first three paragraphs of the text
2)
"A reporter's personal preference... ...of strict neutrality".
3) "Journalists, by nature of…
…broadcasts their work"
basic, solid, outstanding, broad, range, persuasive,
to select, purpose.
effective, accurately, objective (adj.), to include,
to benefit, suburban, maximum, constantly
1)
(...) experience... newspaper writing was practically a requirement...a
job... public relations.
2)
(...) the readers... a special
interest magazine share a very strong interest... only one subject.
3)
A journalist is usually employed... a news organization to gather,
process, and synthesize information... the primary purpose... providing news...
the organization's subscribers, viewers, or listeners.
4) A public relations writer differs... a journalist... at least three basic aspects.
1)
the Present Continuous Passive
2)
the Present Indefinite Passive and explain the usage of these tenses
1. What process includes
research, planning, communication, and evaluation?
2. What is effective
writing "based on"?
3. Why does emphasis remain
on use of a journalistic style?
4. Where is much of public
relations writing directed to?
5. What is the primary
purpose of gathering, processing and synthesizing information in journalism?
6. What other channels of
communication besides the news media does the public relations writer use?
7.
Where does a suburban daily newspaper circulate?
8. What interest may the
readers of a specialized magazine share?
9. What audiences may the
public relations writer work for?
10. What are the traditional
mass media?
11. What are the channels
for the message of the public relations writer?
12. Can they be combined?
1) From this standpoint, both the public relations writer and the journalist share a common ground.
2) Emphasis remains on use of a journalistic style in public relations writing.
3) ... people who share a common residential
area but have a broad range of backgrounds and interests.
1) It is a mistake for public relations writers
to consider themselves simply "journalists in residence
"(true/false).
2) A hallmark of professional reporting is to
present information in an objective manner (true/false).
3) Effective public relations writing is not based on carefully defining the audience and its composition so that you can tailor your information to its interests and concerns (true/false).
4)
The writer's purpose is not objectivity but advocacy (true/false).
5)
Public relations writing is not different from journalistic writing
(true/false).
The U.K.
In theory, the
constitution has three branches: Parliament, which makes laws, the government,
which "executes" laws, i.e. puts them into effect, and the law
Courts, which interpret laws. Although the Queen is officially head of all
three branches, she has little direct power.
Parliament has two parts: the House
of Commons and the House of Lords. Members of the House of Commons are elected
by the voters of 650 constituencies. They are known as MPs, or Members of
Parliament. The Prime Minister, or leader of the Government, is also an MP,
usually the leader of the political party with a
majority in the House of Commons.
The Prime Minister is
advised by a Cabinet of about twenty other ministers. The Cabinet includes the
ministers in charge of major government departments or ministries. The most
important are Treasury, Foreign Office and Home Office. Departments and
ministries are run by civil servants, who are permanent officials. Even if the
Government changes after an election, the same civil servants are employed.
The House of Lords
consists of the Lords Temporal and the Lords Spiritual. The Lords Spiritual are
the Archbishops of York and Canterbury, together with twenty-four senior
bishops of the Church of England. The Lords Temporal consist of hereditary
peers who have inherited their titles; life peers who are appointed by the
Queen on the advice of the Government for various services to the nation; and
the Lords of Appeal (Law Lords) who become life peers on their judicial
appointments. The latter serve the House of Lords as the ultimate court of
appeal. This appeal court consists of some nine Law Lords who hold senior
judicial office. They are presided over by the Lord Chancellor and they form a
quorum of three to five when they hear appeal cases.
–
исполнять закон;
– избирательный округ;
– служащий;
– постоянный работник;
– светские лорды;
– духовные лорды;
– архиепископ;
– наследовать;
– Министерство внутренних дел;
– Министерство иностранных дел;
– Министерство финансов;
– Министр финансов.
1. Which of these people are not elected: a
peer, an MP, a civil servant, the Prime Minister?
2. What is the
difference between life peers and hereditary peers, Lords Temporal and Lords
Spiritual?
3. What are civil servants?
4. Which areas of
government do these people deal with: the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Home
Secretary, the Lord Chancellor?
|
election campaign |
support |
polling day |
ballot box |
|
vote |
predict; opinion poll |
polling station |
candidate |
People sometimes try to (a)_________ the result
of an election weeks before it takes place. Several hundred people are asked
which party they prefer, and their answers are used to guess the result of me
coming election. This is called an (b)_________. Meanwhile each party conducts
its (c) ______ with meetings, speeches, television commercials, and party
members going from door to door encouraging people to (d)___________their
party. In Britain everyone over 18 is eligible to (e)__________. The place
where people go to vote in an election is called a (f)__________ and the day of
the election is often known as (g)____________. The voters put their
votes in a (h)__________and later they are counted. The (i)____________ with
the most votes is then declared the winner.
The
British government is elected for up to five years, unless it is defeated in
Parliament on a major issue. The Prime Minister chooses the date of the next
General Election, but does not have to wait until the end of the five years. A
time is chosen which will give as much advantage as possible to the political
party in power. Other politicians and the newspapers try very hard to guess
which date the Prime Minister will choose.
About a month before
the election the Prime Minister meets a small group of close advisers to
discuss the date which would best suit the party.
The
date is announced to the Cabinet. The Prime Minister formally asks the
Sovereign to dissolve Parliament.
Once
Parliament is dissolved, all MPs are unemployed, but government officers
continue to function.
Party
manifestos are published and campaigning begins throughout me country, lasting
for about three weeks with large-scale press, radio and television coverage.
Voting takes place on
Polling Day (usually a Thursday). The results from -each constituency are
announced as soon as the votes have been counted, usually the same night The
national result is known by the next morning at the latest.
As
soon as it is clear that one party has a majority of seats in the House. of
Commons, its leader is formally invited by the Sovereign to form a government.
– избирательный округ;
– правящая партия;
– вопрос первостепенной важности;
– дать кому-либо преимущество;
– сформировать правительство;
– широкое освещение предвыборной кампании в прессе;
– объявить дату выборов;
– объявить результаты выборов;
– иметь большинство мест в палате общин;
– распустить парламент;
– подсчитывать голоса;
– потерпеть поражение в парламенте.
The USA
Congress; Senate; bills;
resolutions; President; presidential; resident; programmes; to recommend;
secretaries; advocates; interests; system; criminal; civil; constitution;
nation.
government;
legislation; representative; election; head; interests; appointment; trial;
recommendation; composition; dependent; legislative.
an
amendment; a government; a branch; executive; legislative;
judicial; presidential; to be held; a resident; to carry out; to appoint; an
ambassador, to be composed of; representatives; particular, to sign; to pass;
to try; similar, entire; a governor.
by
the Constitution of 1787 and the amendments to it; the executive, legislative
and judicial branches of power; the Congress of the United States; the Senate
and the House of Representatives; for a term of 4 years; the number of
representatives from each state; to depend on the number of people in each
particular state; in order to become a law; to pass both the Houses; the
executive power in the United States is vested in the President; the presidential
election; to carry out the programmes of the Government; to appoint Federal
Judges; ambassadors to other countries; to be influential; Chief Justice of the
USA; Associate Justices; to try criminal and civil cases; the governor of the
state.
By
the Constitution of 1787 (and the amendments to it) the government of the USA
is composed of three branches: the executive one, the legislative one, and the
judicial one.
The
highest executive power in the United States is vested in the President of the
United States, who is elected for a term of 4 years by electors of each state.
The Presidential election is held every four years in November. The President
of the USA must be a native-born citizen, resident in the country for 14 years
and at least 35 years old.
The
President is to carry out the programmes of the Government, to recommend much
of the legislation to the Congress. He is to appoint Federal Judges,
ambassadors to other countries and heads of various government departments, called
secretaries.
The
legislative power belongs to the Congress of the United States consisting of
two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate is
composed of two members from each state elected for a term of 6 years, one
third being elected every two years. The number of representatives
from each state to the House of Representatives depends on the number of people
in each particular state.
In
order to become a law all bills and resolutions must pass both the Houses and
must be signed by the President.
An
important role in the American legislation is played by so-called «lobbyists».
They are often more influential than Congressmen themselves.
The
Supreme Court is the highest judicial organ of the United States and the head
of the judicial branch of power. The Supreme Court consists of the Chief
Justice of the USA and a number of Associate Justices.
The
United States is divided into 11 judicial circuits, each one being served with
a Federal Court of Appeals. There are about 90 district courts in different
parts of the United States. The district courts are the lowest ones in the
Federal court system. Most of the criminal and civil cases are tried by these
courts.
Each
state has a constitution similar to the Constitution of the entire nation and
all the power in each state is divided into executive, legislative and
judicial. The head of each state is the governor of the state.
Each
state has each own system of courts similar to that of the Federal courts.
|
power |
(осуществлять, быть облеченным, исполнительная, законодательная, судебная, отрасли, экономическая и т.д.) |
|
to elect |
(на срок, президента, сенатора, представителя, депутата и т.д.) |
|
to appoint |
(государственного секретаря, посла, председателя суда, помощников судьи, прокурора, судью и т.д.) |
|
to try |
(уголовное дело, гражданское дело и т.д.) |
1. The
government of the USA is composed of three branches.
2. The
executive power in the United States is vested in the Congress.
3. The
US President must be 40 years old.
4. The
President of the USA carries out the programmers of the Government.
5. The
President of the USA appoints secretaries of the Government.
6. The
Congress of the United States heads the legislative power.
7. The
Congress of the United States is the highest executive and the President is the
highest legislative power in the USA.
8. In
order to become a law all bills and resolutions must be signed by the
President.
9. The
Supreme Court is the head of the judicial branch of power in America.
10. The
Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice of the USA and a number of the
Associate Justices.
11. There
are 11 judicial circuits in the United States.
12. Most
of the criminal and civil cases are tried by district courts in the USA.
13. Each
state in the USA has a constitution similar to the Constitution of the entire
nation.
1.
By the Constitution of 1787 (and the
amendments to it) the government of the USA is composed of....
2.
The executive power in the USA is vested
in the President of the USA who....
3.
The President of the United States is to
carry out …, to appoint..., to recommend …
4.
... must be a native-born citizen,
resident in the country for..., and at least... years old.
5.
The legislative power in the USA belongs
to... consisting of....
6.
The number of representatives from each
state to the House of Representatives depends on....
7.
The Senate is composed of... elected for a
term of 6 years, one third being elected every two years.
8.
In order to become a law all bills and
resolutions must....
9.
Lobbyists play an important role in the
American ....
10.
The highest judicial organ in the United
States is... consisting of the Chief Justice of the USA and a number of
Associate Justices.
11.
The lowest courts in the Federal court
system are... which try most of the criminal and civil cases.
12.
The head of each state is....
Business is a word that is
commonly used in many different languages. But exactly what does it mean? The
concepts and activities of business have increased in modern times.
Traditionally, business simply meant exchange or trade for things people wanted
or needed. Today it has a more technical definition. One definition of business
is the production, distribution, and sale of goods and services for a profit.
To examine this definition, we will look at its various parts.
First, the production is the
creation of services or the changing of materials into products. One example is
the conversion of iron ore into metal car parts. Next, these products need to
be moved from the factory to the marketplace. This is known as distribution. A
car might be moved from a factory in Detroit to a car dealership in Miami.
Third is the sale of goods
and services. Sale is the exchange of a product or service for money. A car is
sold to someone in exchange for money. Goods are products that people either
need or want; for example, cars can be classified as goods. Services, on the
other hand, are activities that a person or group performs for another person
or organization. For instance, an auto mechanic performs a service when he
repairs a car. A doctor also performs a service by taking care of people when
they are sick.
Business, then, is the
combination of all these activities: production, distribution, and sale.
However, there is one other important factor. This factor is the creation of
profit or economic surplus. A major goal in the functioning of an American
business company is making a profit. Profit is the money that remains after all
the expenses are paid. Creating an economic surplus or profit, is therefore, a
primary goal of business activity.
|
concept exchange creation production distribution to perform sale profit |
понятие обмен создание производство распределение, транспортировка выполнять продажа прибыль |
1.
What is one modern definition of business?
2.
How
does this modern meaning of business differ from the traditional one?
3.
What
does production involve?
4.
What
example of distribution is given in the text? Can you think of another example?
5.
How do
goods differ from services?
6.
In
addition to production, distribution, and sale, what other factor is important
in defining business?
7.
What
is profit?
1.
___T__ Business is not just one activity
but a combination of different
operations, such as production, distribution, and sale.
2.
______
From ancient to modern times the definition of business has remained the same.
3.
______
Moving a truckload of oranges from the orchard to the supermarket is an example
of production.
4.
______
A salesclerk provides a service by answering customers’ questions.
|
1. _g__ goods |
(a) moving or transporting |
|
2. ____ conversion |
(b) trade |
|
3. ____ for instance |
(c) however |
|
4. ____ distribution |
(d) look at |
|
5. ____ exchange |
(e) change |
|
6. ____ on the other hand |
(f) for example |
|
7. ____ examine |
(g) products |
1. sales/sells
a. An annual
report includes the sales
figures of the company for the current fiscal year.
b. An auto
dealership sells cars, trucks,
vans, and sometimes recreational vehicles.
2. distribution/distribute
a. Some
companies hold exclusive __________ rights for specific products.
b. Factory
representatives __________ products to wholesalers and retailers.
3. production/produces
a.
How efficiently a company __________ its products
will in large measure determine its success.
b.
The
__________ of high-technology instruments is one of the most rapidly growing
industries in the 1990s.
A Lifetime of Learning to Manage Effectively
Years ago, when I was a
young assistant professor at the Harvard Business School, I thought that the
key to developing managerial leadership lay in raw brain power. I thought the
role of business schools was to develop future managers who knew all about the
various functions of business – to teach them how to define problems
succinctly, analyze these problems and identify alternatives in a clear,
logical fashion, and, finally, to teach them to make an intelligent decision.
My thinking gradually became
tempered by living and working outside the United States and by serving seven
years as a college president. During my
presidency of Babson College, I added several additional traits or skills that
I felt a good manager must possess.
The first is the ability to
express oneself in a clear, articulate fashion. Good oral and written
communication skills are absolutely essential if one is to be an effective
manager.
Second, one must possess
that intangible set of qualities called leadership
skills. To be a good leader one must understand and be sensitive to people
and be able to inspire them toward the achievement of common goals.
Next I concluded that
effective managers must be broad human
beings who not only understand the world of business but also have a sense
of the cultural, political, historical, and (particularly today) the
international aspects of life and society. This suggests that exposure to the
liberal arts and humanities should be part of every manager’s education.
Finally, as I pondered the
business and government-related scandals that have occupied the front pages of
newspapers throughout the seventies and early eighties, it became clear that a
good manager in today’s world must have courage
and a strong sense of integrity. He or she must know where to draw the line
between right and wrong.
That can be agonizingly
difficult. Drawing a line in a corporate setting sometimes involves having to
make a choice between what appears to be conflicting “rights”. For example, if
one is faced with a decision whether or not to close an ailing factory, whose
interests should prevail? Those of stockholders? Of employees? Of customers? Or
those of the community in which the factory is located? It’s a tough choice.
And the typical manager faces many others.
Sometimes these choices
involve simple questions of honesty or truthfulness. More often, they are more
subtle and involve such issues as having to decide whether to “cut corners” and
economize to meet profit objectives that may be beneficial in the short run but
they are not in the best long-term interests of the various groups being served
by one’s company. Making the right choice in situations such as these clearly
demands integrity and the courage to follow where one’s integrity leads.
But now I have left behind
the cap and gown of a college president and put on the hat of chief executive
officer. As a result of my experience as a corporate CEO, my list of desirable
managerial traits has become still longer.
It now seems to me that what
matters most in the majority of organizations is to have reasonably
intelligent, hard-working managers who have a sense of pride and loyalty toward
their organizations; who can get to the root of a problem and are inclined
toward action; who are decent human beings with a natural empathy and concern
for people; who possess humor, humility, and common sense.
It is the ability to make positive things happen that most
distinguishes the successful manager from the mediocre or unsuccessful one. It
is far better to have dependable managers who can make the right things happen
in a timely fashion than to have brilliant, sophisticated, highly educated
executives who are excellent at planning and analyzing, but who are not so good
at implementing. The most cherished manager is the one who says “I can do it”,
and then does.
Many business schools
continue to focus almost exclusively on the development of analytical skills.
As a result, these schools are continuing to graduate large numbers of MBAs and
business majors who know a great deal about analyzing strategies, dissecting
balance sheets, and using computers – but who still don’t know how to manage!
As a practical matter, of course,
schools can go only so far in teaching their students to manage. Only hard
knocks and actual work experience will fully develop the kinds of managerial
traits, skills, and virtues that I have discussed here.
Put another way: The best
way to learn to manage is to manage. Companies such as mine that hire aspiring
managers can help the process along by:
·
providing good role models and mentors
·
setting clear standards and high expectations that emphasize the kind
of broad leadership traits that are important to the organization; and then
rewarding young managers accordingly
·
letting young managers actually manage
Having thereby encouraged
those who are not only “the best and the brightest” but also broad, sensitive human beings possessing all of the other traits
and virtues essential for their managerial leadership to rise to the top, we
just might be able to breathe a bit more easily about the future health of
industry and society.
Ralph Z. Sorenson
|
Succinctly Stockholders Employees Customers Community Subtle Chief executive officer, CEO Empathy Mediocre Dependable To dissect a balance sheet Mentor Common sense Beneficial Humility Decent |
сжато, кратко акционеры служащие клиенты общество, публика, общественность тонкий, неуловимый исполнительный директор сочувствие посредственный надежный анализировать баланс наставник, ментор здравый смысл благотворный, полезный скромность, смирение, кротость порядочный,
приличный |
· What are popular stereotypes about entrepreneurial skills and traits of character?
·
List
all the qualities that the author thinks essential for a good manager. What are
his arguments?
·
Which
of the qualities discussed in the article are especially essential for young
Russian entrepreneurs? Prioritize them according to the significance.
·
Could
you become a successful entrepreneur? Why or why not?
·
What
do you think about Volny education? What kind of people does it mold?
1.
Good
oral and written communication skills are not very important for an effective
manager nowadays. ______
2.
According
to the author a good manager must possess courage and a strong sense of
integrity. ______
3.
It’s
better to have dependable managers who are good at implementing. ______
4.
Drawing
the line between right and wrong and making the right choice is very difficult.
______
Economics is a science
that analyzes what, how, and for whom society produces. The central economic
problem is to reconcile the conflict between people's unlimited demands with
society's ability to produce goods and services.
In industrial Western countries markets are to allocate resources. The market is the process by which production and consumption are coordinated through prices.
In a command economy, a
central planning office makes decisions on what, how, and for whom to produce.
Economy cannot rely entirely on command, but there was extensive planning in
many Soviet bloc countries.
A free market economy has no
government intervention. Resources are allocated entirely through markets.
Modern economies in the
West are mixed and rely mainly on the market but with a large dose of
government intervention. The optimal level of government intervention remains a
problem which is of interest to economists.
The degree of government
restrictions differs greatly between countries that have command economies and
countries that have free market economies. In the former, resources are
allocated by central government planning. In the latter, there is not any
government regulation of the consumption, production, and exchange of goods.
Between the two main types lies the mixed economy where market and government
are both of importance.
1. What is the central
economic problem of a society?
2. What is the market?
3. What is the function
of the market in an industrial country?
4. How are decisions
made in a command economy?
5. In what way does a
free market economy differ from a command economy?
6. To which type do most
economies in the West belong?
1. Economists'
recommendations may be of high value to governments but governments do not
always rely on them.
2. The study of economics
is of great use even to those students who have no wish to become professional
economists.
3. Basic problems of
economics are of great importance to every economist, while specific problems
of farm economics are mostly of interest to economists who study agriculture.
4. Since economists cannot
make experiments, collecting and using ia-formation from a large number of past
years is of practical importance for analyzing and solving problems of today.
5. Professional marketing
services are of great value to producers and sellers.
6. Economic statistics are
of interest to economic policy decision-makers.
MODEL: In a command
economy the government makes all decisions about production and consumption. In
a command economy all decisions about production and consumption are made by
the government.
1. The government made all
resources allocation decisions in the Soviet Union.
2. Prices regulate
consumption and production in a market economy.
3.
Economy does not usually rely entirely on planning.
4. The economists are
monitoring the prices and levels of consumption of different goods and
services.
5. Economics analyzes
society's production and consumption levels.
6. The company has made a
decision to start producing new machines.
7. Economists had studied
and discussed the ideas of Karl Marx for over sixty years before Russians put
them into life.
8. If we allocate enough
resources to agriculture, we will achieve a high level of production.
1. ... a command economy
that relies ... central planning, government's economic role is ... prime
importance.
2. ... a free-market
economy, economic decisions are made ... firms and individuals and resources
are allocated ... markets
3. The demand ... bread has
been going down ... Western Europe ... several years.
4. Some direct methods ...
price regulation are sometimes used ... governments, but they usually rely ...
indirect regulation.
5. Prices ... farm products
have been an example ... government regulation ... prices ... the USA ... a
long time.
6. Individuals ... demand
... goods and services not only determine what and how much is produced ... an
economy, but also how many workers are allocated ... every industry.
1. (A command economy / a
free market economy) is a society where the government makes all decisions
about production and consumption.
2. (Economics/ Economy)
studies how markets and prices allow society to solve the problems of what,
how, and for whom to produce.
3. Every economist sees
(the restriction / the importance) of the question of what, how, and for whom
to produce.
4. Nations have different
(consumption / levels) of farm production.
5. When (the price / the
importance) of some goods grows, people will try to use less of them but
producers will want to produce more of them.
6. In (mixed/both)
countries, Canada and the USA, structural changes in the agricultural sector of
economy have become of interest to economists and general public in the 80s
and 90s of the 20th century.
7. After years of
competition between command and market economies, (the former / the latter)
gave way in many countries of the world to (the former/the latter).
Communism is a political
and economic doctrine which (to say) that everything must belong to the state
and the government is to organize all the production. Karl Marx (to formulate)
his idea of communism as "from each according to his ability, to each
according to his needs". Command economy where strategic decisions (to
make) by government and (not to regulate) by the price system (to rely) on the
communist doctrine. China still (to organize) its economy along communist lines
but Russia and other former (бывший) Soviet Union's
countries and East-European countries recently (to move away) to more market –
based economies.
Demand is the quantity
of a good that buyers wish to buy at each price. Other things equal, at low
prices the demanded quantity is higher.
Supply is the quantity
of a good that sellers wish to sell at each price. Other things equal, when
prices are high, the supplied quantity is high as well.
The market is in
equilibrium when the price regulates the quantity supplied by producers and the
quantity demanded by consumers. When prices are not so high as the equilibrium
price, there is excess demand (shortage) raising the price. At prices above the
equilibrium price, there is excess supply (surplus) reducing the price.
There are some factors
influencing demand for a good, such as the prices of other goods, consumer
incomes and some others.
An increase in the price
of a substitute good (or a decrease in the price of a complement good) will at
the same time raise the demanded quantity.
As consumer income is
increased, demand for a normal good will also increase but demand for an
inferior good will decrease. A normal good is a good for which demand increases
when incomes rise. An inferior good is a good for which demand falls when
incomes rise.
As to supply, some
factors are assumed as constant. Among them are technology, the input price, as
well as degree of government regulation. An improvement in technology is as
important for increasing the supplied quantity of a good as a reduction in
input prices.
Government regulates demand
and supply, imposing ceiling prices (maximum prices) and floor prices (minimum
prices) and adding its own demand to the demand of the private sector.
1.
What is demand?
2.
What is supply?
3.
When are the demanded and supplied quantities of goods high?
4.
How are prices and the supplied and demanded quantities regulated by the
market?
5.
Which factors influence demand? How do they work?
6.
Which factors influence supply?
8.
How can governments regulate demand and supply?
1.
In East-European countries consumers couldn't get goods, and factories
couldn't buy inputs at prices held low by governments.
2.
Governments intervene in economies controlling the supply of money,
limiting monopolies and helping private industries.
3.
An improvement in technology will increase the supply of a good, increasing
the quantity supplied at each possible price.
4.
Governments regulate economic activities imposing some restrictions.
5.
The governments can influence for whom goods are produced, taking income
away from some people and giving it to others.
6.
The high price for a good is the market mechanism telling suppliers it
is now time to increase production.
1. ... a mixed economy the
government may be a producer... private goods, for example, steel and motor
cars.
2. An increase ... the
price ... an input will lead to a reduction ... the demand ... that input.
3. The firm can sell as
much as it wants ... the market price.
4. A consumer's tastes and
income as well as prices ... other goods influence ... his or her demand.
5. Consumers almost always
respond to an increase ... a good's price ... a reduction ... the quantity ...
it consumed ... them.
6. A change ... the supply
... a good and ... its demand both influence ... its equilibrium price.
7. Rupert Murdoch, the
media magnate, is planning to supply the services ... his network ...
satellites ... Internet development. If Internet is operated ... satellites,
there will be access ... it ... televisions and mobile phones, not only ...
personal computers, ... the near future.
8. ... a command economy,
plans are imposed ... producers ... government agencies.
9. Scientists and
engineers have been developing substitutes ... natural building materials ...
several past decades.
10. Supplying people ...
food as well as industry ... raw materials, agriculture is ... utmost
importance ... an economy.
11. A change ... the
supply ... a good and ... its demand both influence ... its equilibrium price.
12. Rupert Murdoch,
the media magnate, is planning to supply the services ... his network ...
satellites ... Internet development. If Internet is operated ... satellites,
there will be access ... it ... televisions and mobile phones, not only ...
personal computers, ... the near future.
13. ... a command economy,
plans are imposed ... producers ... government agencies.
14. Scientists and engineers
have been developing substitutes ... natural building materials ... several
past decades.
15. Supplying people ...
food as well as industry ... raw materials, agriculture is ... utmost
importance ... an economy.
What (to happen) to the
equilibrium price of a product when its quantity (to supply) by producers (to
change)? For example, with an improvement in technology of wheat production
wheat farmers (to wish) and (to be) able (to supply) more wheat at a given
price than they (to do) before. How it (to influence) the equilibrium price?
Clearly, it (to fall). But if the weather (to be) poor, the (to supply)
quantity of wheat (to decrease). How it (to influence) the equilibrium price?
It (to go) up.
In 1984, police officers
(to concern) with narcotics consumption in the United States (to show) what a
change in (to supply) quantity (can) (to do). There (to be) a massive increase
in the quantity of coca production in South America and the quantity of cocaine
(to supply) to the United States (to raise) dramatically. The result (to be) a
big fall in the price of cocaine. In some parts of the United States, cocaine
(to sell) in 1984 for one-half to one-third the price of a year before. One of
federal officials (to say): "At no time in the modern history of
international drug control the price of a drug (to drop) by half so
quickly."
This section introduces
MS-DOS and shows how it helps you to use your computer easily. MS-DOS has a
number of powerful features, and the paragraphs below contain cross-references
to further details later in the manual.
What is MS-DOS?
MS-DOS is an operating
system - a piece of software which (looks after the running of your
computer. It lets you create and | keep track of files, run and link programs,
and make use of peripheral devices (for example, printers and disk drives)
attached to your computer.
Because your computer
can run with one of several different operating systems (for example, MS-DOS,
CP/M) the operating system is not built into the computer. Instead it is loaded
from disk when the computer is started up.
Once the operating
system has been loaded into the computer's memory the disk from which it was
loaded may be removed if required. The operating system needs to be reloaded
only if part has been overwritten (when using very large programs, for
example) or when the computer is restarted.
Disks
A disk is a data storage
medium consisting of a flat, circular, magnetic surface on which information
can be recorded. You will receive several disks with your computer. These
already contain information and programs, and are ready to use.
Blank disks can be used
to store your own information and programs, but these disks must be formatted
before they can be used.
Disks which contain
important information can be write-protected. This means you can read
from but not write to the disk, making it impossible to write accidentally over
information. Your disks can be write-protected - instructions are included in
each box of disks.
Default drive
Your computer may have
either one or two disk drives, which MS-DOS knows as drives A: and B:
The default drive is the
one which MS-DOS uses unless you tell it to do otherwise. It is shown by the
prompt which MS-DOS displays:
A>
drive A is the default drive
B>
drive В is the default drive
To change the default disk drive,
enter the new drive letter:
|
A > B: changes the
default drive from A to В |
|
B > A: changes the
default drive from В to A |
Computers store
information on disks in files. A file is a collection of related information
such as a computer program or the text of a letter.
Each file is given a
unique name, and each filename is stored in a directory. To find out about the
files in a directory, use the MS-DOS command DIR.
When referring to a
file, you must use a file specification. This consists of a pathname, a
filename and an extention (if there is one). As an example, to reference a file
on drive B: called FRED.BAS (where the default drive is 'A') the correct file
specification would be:
B:\FRED.BAS
File extention can be up to three
characters long and are used to identify the contents of a file.
MS-DOS automatically
defines the meaning of some file extentions. Others can be assigned as you
wish. For example, .TXT can be used to indicate a text file.
Directories
MS-DOS lets you organise
the files on your disk into directories. Directories are a way of dividing your
files into convenient groups. A directory may contain any number of files, but
it is often more convenient to separate the files into subdirectories.
This method of
organising the disk is rather like a tree where the files are the leaves of the
tree and the directories are the branches. (The first directory is usually
called the "ROOT".)
You can have more than
one file (leaf) with the same name provided that the files are in different
directories. The diagram shows two instances of FILE57 - the first in
subdirectory 1, the other in subdirectory 2.
Each directory has at
least two entries, even when otherwise empty. These are '.' and '…' . The '.' specifies
the name of the current directory and the '…' the name of the parent directory.
MS-DOS needs a pathname
to find its way to a particular file. The pathname is a series of directory
names followed by the required filename, each separated from the last by a
backward slash (\). If a file specification does not begin with \ the first
part of the specification is taken to be default, or current, directory.
|
\fred file 'fred' in root directory |
|
fred file 'fred' in current directory |
|
sub\fred file
'fred' in directory 'sub' which
is contained in the current directory |
Default Directory
You must tell the
computer which directory it is to use as its current working directory – that
is, the directory you wish to work in. Do this with the CHANGE DIRECTORY
command (CD). The current working directory is often called the default directory.
To change the current
directory use CD followed by the pathname of the directory you wish to use. For
example:
A> CD\SUB1\SUB3
Command
A command performs some
commonly used task, such as creating a directory or copying a file or disk.
MS-DOS has internal and external
commands.
Internal commands are available at any
time when your computer is running. External commands are loaded from
disk only when needed.
1. Предложенный текст представляет собой
а) инструкцию по работе с операционной системой MS DOS,
б) краткое описание операционной системы MS DOS и ее компонентов,
в) определения основных понятий, необходимых при работе с операционной системой MS DOS.
2. Операционная система MS DOS
а) встроена в компьютер,
б) используется одновременно с операционной системой СР/М,
в) загружается с диска при включении компьютера
3. Диск, на котором записана операционная система MS DOS,
а) необходимо хранить в компьютере,
б) необходимо каждый раз перезагружать при включении компьютера,
в) может быть снят после того, как его содержание переведено в память компьютера.
4. Диски, которые имеются в комплекте с компьютером,
а) защищены от записи,
б) предназначены для записи и должны быть предварительно отформатированы,
в) содержат информацию и программы.
5. В компьютере имеются 2 дисковода для дискет, из которых в качестве основного дисковода, применяемого по умолчанию,
а) может быть использован только дисковод А,
б) может быть использован как дисковод А, так и дисковод В,
в) может быть использован только дисковод В.
6. Спецификация файла – это:
а) имя файла,
б) имя файла и расширение,
в) имя директорий и субдиректорий, в
которые структурно входит искомый файл, его имя и расширение.
7. Два файла
а) не могут ни при каких условиях иметь одинаковое имя,
б) могут при любых условиях иметь одинаковые имена,
в) могут иметь одинаковое имя, находясь в разных директориях.
8. Термин "DEFAULT DIRECTORY" означает
а) корневую директорию,
б) рабочую, или текущую директорию,
в) директорию, которую удаляют.
9. Внешние команды
а) находятся в памяти компьютера всегда,
б) загружаются с диска только тогда, когда требуются,
в) используются при создании, копировании файлов и дисков.
10. "BATCH FILE" – это
а) особый файл, в котором
хранится последовательность команд,
используемых друг за другом,
б) особый файл в корневой директории,
в) наиболее часто используемый файл.
Under MS-DOS 3.20 you
can create and access names for many different types of devices - just as if
they are physical disk drives installed in your system. The devices you can
access as disks are:
·
internal floppy-disk drives
·
external floppy-disk drives
·
additional drive identifiers for floppy-disk drives, defined by DRIVER.SYS
·
hard-disk drives of many different sizes
·
RAM disks created in the computer's memory
·
directories that have been given logical drive names using SUBST
Although this makes it
possible to configure an extremely powerful system, it also means you have to
take the utmost care in creating suitable CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT files.
You also have to take care only to specify drives that exist physically when
using certain commands. For example, you cannot use DISKCOPY to copy an entire
network drive, and you cannot use FORMAT on a drive that is really a directory
(named using SUBST).
Letters are assigned to
the drives that you can access in a logical order. Drives that are built into
your system are automatically assigned drive letters and physical drive
numbers. Physical drive numbers, are normally used by MS-DOS, but you also use
them with the DRIVER.SYS driver in a CONFIG.SYS file. Logical drive numbers
correspond directly with drive letters (0 corresponds to drive A, and so on).
These are used in CONFIG.SYS with the DRIVARM command.
Internal disk drives
The internal floppy-disk
drives are always A and B, and their physical drive numbers are 0 and 1. The
hard-disk drive is named and numbered in a similar way. The internal hard disk
is drive C, and its number is 128.
The external 360 Kbyte
disk drive designed for Epson's portable computers takes the place of drive B,
even if you have a second internal 720 Kbyte drive. This means that the
external drive becomes physical drive number 1.
If you do not have a
second internal floppy-disk drive, the drive name В can be used as a second way
of accessing the single drive, allowing you to copy files from one 720 Kbyte
disk to another. If you add more drive names by using device drivers such as VDISK.SYS
and DRIVER.SYS, these are allocated starting with the first letter after the
internal drives and in the order the drivers appear in your CONFIG.SYS file.
example
If
you have one floppy-disk drive and one hard-disk drive you can install a 128
Kbyte RAM disk as drive D by including one line in your CONFIG.SYS file:
5enter DEVICE = VDISK.SYS 128
|
Дисководы для жестких дисков |
Фиктивные (логические) дисководы |
Дисководы для гибких дискет |
|
1. |
1. 2. |
1. 2. 3. |
1.
Дисководы имеют в качестве
обозначения:
а) буквы
б) буквы и цифры
в) цифры
2.
Между буквами и в некоторых
случаях цифрами
а) нет соответствий
б) имеются
соответствия 1 - А 2 - В
в) имеются соответствия 0 - А 1 - В
When there is more than
one user on your computer, or when you are working on several different
projects, the number of files in the directory can become large and unwieldy.
To deal with this large number of files, you may want to keep your files
separate from a coworker's or organize your programs into convenient categories.
In an office, you can
separate and organize files that belong to different people or that relate to
specific projects by putting them in different file cabinets. For example, you
might put your accounting programs in one file cabinet and your letters in
another. You can do the same thing with MS-DOS by putting your files into
different directories.
Directories let you
group your files in convenient categories. These directories, in turn, may
contain other directories (referred to as subdirectories). This
organized file structure is called a multilevel directory system.
Note: The maximum number
of files or directories that the root directory may contain varies, depending
on the type of disk and disk you are using. Usually the maximum number is 112
for a double-sided, double-density, 5.25-inch floppy disk. The maximum number
of entries in the root directory of a 1.44 megabyte 3.5-inch floppy disk is
224. This maximum capacity for a root directory may vary depending upon how the
disk is formatted. The number of subdirectories on a disk is not restricted.
The first level in a
multilevel directory is the root directory, which is created automatically when
you format a disk and start putting files on it. Within root directory, you can
create additional directories and subdirectories.
As you create new
directories for groups of files, or for other people using the computer, the
directory system grows. And within each new directory you can add new files or
create new subdirectories.
You can move around in
the multilevel system by staring at the root and "traveling" through
intermediate subdirectories to find a specific file. Conversely, you can start
anywhere within the file system and travel toward the root. Or you can go
directory to any directory without traveling through intermediate levels.
The directory that you
are in is called the working directory. The filenames and commands discussed in
this chapter relate to your working directory and do not apply to any other
directories in the structure. When you start your computer, you start out in
the working directory. Similarly, when you create a file, you create it in the
working directory.
Because you can put
files in different directories, you and your coworkers can have files with the
same names, but with unrelated content. The following figure illustrates a
typical multilevel directory structure:
In this example, five
subdirectories of the root directory have been created. These subdirectories
are
•
A directory of external commands, named bin.
•
A user directory containing separate subdirectories for all users
of the system.
•
A directory containing accounting information, named accounts.
•
A directory of programs, named programs.
•
A directory of text files, named memos.
Pete, Emily, and Isabel
each have their own directories, which are subdirectories of the user directory.
Emily has a subdirectory named forms, and both Emily and Isabel have sales,
may files in their directories, even though Isabel's sales.may file
is unrelated to Emily's.
This organization of
files and directories is not important if you work only with files in your own
directory, but if you work with someone else, or on several projects at once,
the multilevel directory system becomes handy. For example, you could get a
list of the files in Emily's forms directory by typing the following
command:
dir\user\emily\forms
Note that a backslash
(\) separates directories from other directories and files. In the previous
example, the first backslash includes the root directory. The use of the
backslash alone indicates the root directory. For example, the following
command displays a list of the files in the root directory:
dir\
To find out what files
Isabel has in her directory, you would type the following command:
dir\user\isabel
This command tells
MS-DOS to travel from the root directory to | the user directory to the Isabel
directory, and to then display all I filenames in the Isabel directory.
1. В каких случаях целесообразно сгруппировать программы в удобные директории?
а) когда имеется более 1 пользователя
б) когда вы работаете одновременно с несколькими проектами
в) когда вы работаете на нескольких компьютерах
2. Что называется многоуровневой системой директорий?
а) директории, содержащие поддиректории, которые в свою очередь содержат группы файлов
б) несколько директорий на дисках
в) директории, содержащие разные группы файлов
3. Как можно просматривать систему директорий?
а) начиная с корневой директории
б) начиная с последнего файла
в) с любого файла
4. Какая из приведенных ниже команд даст возможность просмотреть директорию, с которой работает Изабель?
а) DIR\user\Isabel
б) DIR\user\Emely
в) DIR\user\Isabel\SaIes.may